Sure. Everything is a PyObject.

If you use the actual type system and something like mypy, Python is a joy work with. (For my definition of joy, which includes static typing).

I don't think that matters here, though. This specific hash function is literally used just for putting values in dict buckets. The docs say:

> Hash values are integers. They are used to quickly compare dictionary keys during a dictionary lookup.

They're not to be used as a crypto digest. The downside here, then is that if -1 and -2 are used as dict keys, they'll end up bucketed together. Apparently that hasn't been enough of an issue over the years to bother changing it. One advantage is that those values are common enough that it might break code that incorrectly expects hash() to have predictable outputs. If it used 0xffffffff as the value, lots of busted tests may never stumble across it.

I bet -2 is way less common than -1 in a typical codebase, particularly a C one.

Are they? At least as keys for most dictionaries. Zero and positive integers sure, but negative ones would be somewhat rare. I could maybe see something like error handling, but then do you need performance there?

This article is not about the API contract of the hash function, or the abstraction it provides. If you are just trying to hash things, you don't need any info here.

It's very much trying to go _under_ the abstraction layer to investigate its behavior. Because it's interesting.

This is very similar to how people investigate performance quirks or security issues.

It could have been a bug. There's nothing wrong with the question and seeking answers to it. It was an interesting read too.

If the article title had been "why does the hash function never return -1", you would agree it's not a random behavior and serves a very clear purpose. It just so happens that the original author didn't know that until they did all the digging (nice job by the way).

Not really. Python's strongly typed, but dynamically. You can think of Python variables as untyped references to strongly typed values: the values are typed, but their names are not.

There are different definitions of most of the terms around typing which make most typing conversations confusing as people talk past each other.

Particularly, there is a common definition of “typed” which is exactly equivalent to “statically typed” under which all so-called “dynamically typed” languages are actually “untyped”, and within that system strong and weak typing are either a meaningless distinction or one within the set of statically types languages.

There's also, of course, a common usage within which “dynamically typed” is meaningful and strong vs. weak typing is a separate distinction, usually mostly discussed within languages with dynamic typing, though languages like C being both statically typed and weakly typed has been discussed.

Perhaps the worry was that because the observed behavior up until now was that hash never returns -1, if it were possible possible to write a custom hash function that returns -1, that might break some unsuspecting code due to Hyrum's Law.

You can write a custom hash method that returns -1 (and the one you wrote verifiably does.)

The standard (not custom) hash function, in CPython, which calls your custom method and returns the actual value CPython uses for bucketing, will return -2 in that case, though.

Which is necessary, so that, e.g., following the single mathematical function for hashing of numeric types published in the Python Language Reference will preserve x==y implies hash(x)==hash(y) for custom and build in numeric types in CPython where hash(-1) does not follow that pattern.

Even though for -1 itself, the divergence from the rule is in __hash__ itself. This is also consistent with the basic rule that dunder methods are for communication with the standard machinery, but external consumers should use the standard machinery, not the dunder method.

More explicitly, since buckets in Python's Set implementation are the bottom N bits of the hash (where N depends on set size), this ensures linear sequences of ints (which are the most common type of int set) are all in different buckets, so zero collisions. This is the case except when the differences between integers in the set are multiples of powers of 2. But even then, the way Set is implemented, you don't see perf start to regress until like 2**20 or so. If everything in the set is multiples of 2**20, then they start to underperform better-distributed hashes. But it never gets more than like twice as slow.

So, it ends up being a matter of optimizing for the common case, but still being reasonably performant for the worst case.